Motivation

n Content theories

n Process theories

n Application

Some Key Theories

n Content Theories

n Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

n Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

n Alderfer’s ERG

n Learned Needs Theory

n Process Theories

n Equity Theory

n Expectancy Theory

n Job Characteristics Model

n Social Information Processing

n Goal Setting

n Control Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

n Key idea: There are two elements that determine motivation, motivators and hygiene factors

n Hygiene factors lead to dissatisfaction when not provided, but do not produce motivation in and of themselves (i.e., they are usually necessary, but almost never sufficient for motivation)

n Motivators increase motivation when present

n Some Common Hygiene Factors

n Company policies, quality and fairness of supervision, salary, working conditions, benefits

n Some common motivators

n Achievement, recognition, meaningful work, opportunities for advancement

n Implications

n Highlights the importance of internal motivators

n Highlights the lack of influence of many factors often assumed to lead to motivation

n Dissatisfaction related to turnover, absenteeism, in research

n Suggests a two-stage process to motivation: Make sure the environment is good, then work on enhancing the quality and meaningfulness of the work, and creating a system where individual actions make a difference

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

n Physiological Needs

n Safety Needs

n Social Needs (belonging, companionship, social interchange, etc.)

n Esteem Needs (sense of purpose, self-identity)

n Self-Actualization

n General idea: “Being all that one can be in the fullest way possible.”

n Includes:

n Acceptance of self and others

n Discovery and awareness of one’s true purpose and talents

n Creativity and intrinsic motivation to excel in one’s destined field

n Implications

n Appeals to higher-levels needs will fail unless lower level needs are met first

n Motivation is produced by needs that are NOT satisfied (satisfied needs are not motivators)

n Sufficient wages, benefits, and job security must be provided

n The social environment must be stimulating

n Recognition and respect are vital for meeting esteem needs

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

n Three basic human needs

n Existence

n Relatedness

n Growth

n ERG vs Maslow

n We can seek multiple needs simultaneously

n Frustration in meeting higher-level needs results in regression to concern for lower-level needs

n Needs are not fixed, but are influenced by the environment

n Implications

n Suggests that managers should assume that all employees have the potential for continued growth and development

n Training and personal development programs, group development programs, should be beneficial

n If growth and relatedness needs are not met, employees can become fixated on lower-level issues such as pay, office assignments, etc.

Learned Need Theory

n Atkinson, McClelland

n Focuses on important needs related to work behavior, without specific concern for their order of activation

n Three key needs:

n Need for achievement - need to accomplish meaningful, complex tasks

n Need for affiliation - need to associate favorable with other people

n Need for power - desire to influence and exert control over others

n Implications

n Certain profiles of needs may suit the demands of specific professions

n The needs are largely learned, suggesting that training and experience affect the needs

n Mismatch in need profiles of members could influence group performance

Equity Theory

n People desire equity in the workplace. When equity is not present, they are motivated to reduce the inequity. Equity perceptions are usually expected to related to performance

n Relationships are perceived as equitable when people perceive that their outcomes (e.g., pay) are proportionate to their perceived contributions (e.g., task performance)

n Related ideas

n Social comparison theory: People compare their relative inputs/outputs to those of others, and this influences their equity perceptions as well as their feelings of self esteem

n Two motives for social comparison: Self-awareness, and self-enhancement

n Usually compare ourselves with similar others, but who we compare with depends on the motive driving the comparison

n Determinants of justice perceptions

n Equity (based on inputs) versus equality (chop up pie evenly)

n Distributive and procedural justice

n Implications

n Two-tiered wage systems are seen as inequitable

n Inequity is loosely related to performance, and is often strongly related to feelings of dissatisfaction and related outcomes (absenteeism, turnover, etc.)

n Perceptions of equity are more important than “objective” equity

n Skillful, honest, and tactful communication of factors relevant to inputs (performance evaluations, etc.) and outcomes (pay, privileges) is vital

Expectancy theory

n Basic idea

n People will only work hard when they expect their performance to be instrumental in producing outcomes that they value personally

n Key contingencies:

n Expectancy (that effort will lead to performance)

n Instrumentality (performance will lead to the relevant outcome)

n Valence (the value of the outcome to the individual)

n Implications

n Anything that disrupts one’s perception that effort will lead to a desired outcome will reduce performance

n If the outcome is not valued or important, people will not work hard

n Working in groups produces additional contingencies, and barriers to the perception that inputs will lead to desired outputs

Social Information Processing Model (Salancik and Pfeffer)

n Job satisfaction and job attitudes are strongly influenced by one’s co-workers, superiors, subordinates, and customers

n Valued co-workers often have strongest influence

n Cohesive groups have more influence than non-cohesive groups

n Implications

n The leader’s own attitude and behavior is an important determinant of that of followers

n Work groups are major determinants of work attitudes

n Careful group composition

n Team-building and social identification

n Making group responsible and accountable

Goal Setting (Locke)

n Setting specific and challenging but realistically obtainable goals enhances performance, especially when those goals are accepted or even generated by the employee

n In some cases, goal setting can undermine performance if the goal distracts one from enjoyment of the task itself

n Overjustification effect

n Flow (Csikzentmihalyi)

n Implications

n Very simply, easy to apply and has good research support

n In practice, however, goal setting is a continuous process

n Setting unrealistic, inflexible goals can be very dangerous

n Potential for undermining intrinsic motivation

Control Theory

n See handout for key elements

n Control theory versus traditional goal setting

n Emphasizes that goal setting is a continuous process

n Focus on HOW goals are set and achieved, rather than on the mere effects of goals on performance

n Emphasizes both individual factors and social influences on goal setting

n Examines how goals are revised over time

n Implications

n Expected utility of attaining goals is important

n Individual differences influence goal perception

n Attributions about reasons for meeting or failing to meet goals are important

n Goal setting is a continuous process of readjustment

Using theory

n “There’s nothing as practical as a good theory.”

n Kurt Lewin

n “Without theory, there is no learning.”

n W. Edwards Deming

n Whether we’ve formally articulated them or not, our theories influence our perceptions, decisions, and interaction patterns.

n A sound theory provides (1) a range of coherent, practical strategies, (2) an understanding of the conditions under which each strategy is likely to be effective and why, and (3) a framework and language for communicating our strategies clearly to others.

Application: Personal goal setting

n Why set personal goals?

n Dramatic performance differences

n Some tools for getting clarity on goals

n Personal mission statement

n Values and beliefs analysis

n The funeral eulogy exercise

n The “perfect day” exercise

n Asking targeted questions

n Obstacles

n Inertia

n Not understanding the importance of goals

n Social pressure

n Fear of failure

n Potential misuse of goals

n Be careful what you ask for…

n Prioritization

n What you want is often disguised as work

n The Acres of Diamonds story

A Practical Goal-Setting Strategy

n 1. Get clarity on values

n 2. Set the goal carefully

n Make sure goal is specific, measurable, challenging, realistic, and accepted

n 3. Write it down

n 4. Desire

n What are all the things you will gain?

n What are all the things you will lose if you don’t?

n 5. Assess your current status

n 6. Identify potential obstacles

n 7. Identify needed resources

n Knowledge, people, organizations

n 8. Develop a plan

n 9. Visualize

n 10. Never give up

n Review goals regularly

n View obstacles as challenges and growth opportunities